Korea Beyond Korea: Korean Diaspora and the
Role of the Korean Americans (A New Challenge for Korea in the 21 Century)
Young-chan Ro
ICAS Conference
Blue Bell, Pennsylvania
August 6, 2011
Globalizing Korea: A
New Korea
This is both the
best and the most challenging time for Korea. That is the best time for Korea as seen
from economic prosperity, national productivity, and the worldwide recognition
of Korean products. Since the mythic figure Tan’gun
founded the nation, Korea
has never enjoyed today’s prosperity, economic power,
scientific knowledge and technological advancement, and international
recognition. Although in the past, Korea did have chances to
demonstrate cultural creativity, scientific invention, and intellectual
brilliance, she never had the kind of prosperity and economic development, and
the worldwide and global recognition that enjoys today. Korean brand names such
as Samsung, LG, and Hyundai both promote and celebrate Korea’s worldwide
reputation. The success of Korea
is not limited to economic prosperity alone but extends to other areas all of
which demonstrate the rise of Korea
on the global horizon. In addition to economic prosperity, Korea has
achieved an international prominence in various professional areas from arts to
sports. Korean talents are in the top ranking not only in classical music but
also in pop culture. The so-called “Korean wave” or hallyu has made splashes to the shores of all the continents of the
world. Korea
has never enjoyed wealth and prestige of this magnitude since the founding of
the nation. Yet all this “success,” however, has happened to Korea only
within the last 30-40 years, less even than a half century. This is a relatively
short period of time for Korea
to achieve this global prominence. There aren’t many countries that have risen
to global and international prominence in such a short time. Korea is a late
comer in catching up rapidly with the leading countries in the global sphere. Most
developed countries in Europe, North America, and Japan took longer than a century to
achieve the world prominence.
It is also impressive
to see the speed of success in achieving this world prominence with given such
small size of territory, one half of the Korean Peninsula,
and with a population of 50 million people. Korea, one of the smallest
countries on earth, has gained a global reputation with its products, and Koreans
are scattered to every corner of the world, about 7 million Koreans
throughout in 176 countries.
Koreans are the second most scattered people, after the Jews, on earth.
Historically, the Jews, the Chinese, and the Italians have been the most
scattered people. The Korean diaspora,
however, is rather a more recent phenomenon compared to the Jews, the Chinese,
and the Italians who started their diaspora
centuries ago.
From the
historical point of view, Korea
has largely been confined to the territory of the Korean
Peninsula surrounded by powerful
countries such as China and Japan. Korea
often was described as the country of “morning
calm” (Chosŏn, 조선,
朝鮮), or a “hermit
nation” or “hermit kingdom,”
even as late as the 19th and early 20th centuries. This
indicates clearly that the Koreans were not eager to go outside of the country
and seek places to live other than the Korean Peninsula.
In addition, Koreans have a strong sense of value attached to “space.” Koreans
conceived the Korean
Peninsula as a privileged
place, and developed a strong sense of attachment to this particular space for
centuries. It is remarkable to see that now the Koreans are one of the most
scattered people on earth. Historically, the Koreans were not adventurous the people
like the British, the Spanish, or even the Chinese and the Japanese. Yet Just in over a century, the Koreans have become one of the
most adventures people on earth in seeking their fortunes in all different nations
and cultures.
Throughout
history, Korea
had suffered from numerous foreign invasions, occupations, and colonization.
Especially the last century, due to the Japanese occupation, the Koreans started
leaving the country for a better life. Some patriots fled the country in an attempt
to seek independence of Korea
from Japan
by diplomacy or military power. Even before the notorious Japanese annexation
of Korea in 1910, due to destitution, and social injustice, people often were
dreaming about a “new heaven” and a “new
earth,” a new world. The old world, the world in which they lived, was the
world of corruption, injustice, war and poverty. The “new world” for the
Koreans was a symbol of justice, social order, prosperity and peace. This idea
of the “new world” was a popular theme of “new religions” in Korea,
especially during the 18th and the 19th centuries.
Influential leaders, visionaries, mystics, religious figures emerged during
this time with apocalyptic worldviews and messianic hope for the country.
Throughout Korean
history, especially during the late 18th and the 19th
century, the idea of a “new Korea”
was prophesized by a number of religious and spiritual figures including Ch’oe Cheu
(Su-un),
Kang Chŭngsan(1871-1909),
Sotaesan (1891-1943),
all of them were the founders of new religions in Korea. All of the three Korean new
religions had a common theme: anticipating a new age and new world. The newness was something all the Koreans of
the 19th century were longing for. Popular apocalyptic books such as
Chŏnggamnok (정감록,鄭鑑錄)
also exerted a great influence on a popular level in attracting many
new religious movements that contain some elements of the indigenous Korean
spirituality. The opening of “a new heaven and a new earth” is a very familiar
idea to most Koreans who for centuries lived under the old order of the world
with poverty, corruption, injustice, and a lots of han, or a feeling of unresolved resentment, from 18th
through early 20th century Korea. The most well known Korean version
of the messianic hopes and apocalyptic visions were expressed in the
terms of ch’ŏnjigyebyŏk (천지개벽,天地開闢,“opening
of heaven and earth” ), huch’ŏngyebyŏk (후전개벽,
後天開闢,
“opening of the later heaven”), sinch’ŏnsinji (신천신지,
新天新地,
“new heaven and new earth”), sinch’ŏnji (신천지, 新天地, “new
heaven and earth”), etc. These are
familiar words to most Korean people.
The common idea in
these words is the “opening” of a new heaven and a new earth after the old
world order has gone. Although this notion has been a common eschatological
theme of all new Korean religions, it was also a popular idea in the Korean
folk tradition. The idea of gyebyŏk
(개벽,開闢) or “opening,”
has two specific meanings of opening, the opening of “space” and the opening of
“time.” In this sense, according to these apocalyptic movements and literature,
Korea
was prophesized as opening a new heaven and earth, and a new age.
It is true that these apocalyptic
visions were not fulfilled exactly the way it was prophesized and most Koreans
did not take these words literally. On the other hand, the messianic hope of
the 19th century Korea
did not entirely disappeared from the mind of the Koreans. Rather, most Koreans
have held the hope that someday Korea
will rise to world prominence and prosperity. In this sense, it is highly symbolic to notice that this
messianic hope of ushering in a “new Korea” may now be being realized, of course,
not the way as predicted in chŏnggamnok,
but in the way that Korea has reached today’s prosperity, success, and
worldwide recognition in the past 30 or 40 years. This is a sort of a “new Korea.” Now is
the time for Korea to open
and become a new and global Korea.
It also means to opening of new “time”; a new era. Now Korea has come
to define itself in terms of “new” in both “space” and “time”.
In fact, the
Korean way of thinking does not separate space from time and vice versa because
time and space are not two separate entities. The Western mind clearly
separates space and time. The Korean mind, however, cannot conceive of time
without space, space without time. Now, Korea
is creating a “new” Korea
in both space and time. In terms of “space,” it is a global Korea beyond the geographical and territorial Korea. We may
call it even a “cultural Korea.”
In terms of “time,” it is a Korea
beyond the confinement of the historical past. It is a future Korea that we
have not seen. It seems to me that the traditional and popular messianic view
of the “opening of the latter heaven” huch’ŏngyebyŏk (후전개벽,
後天開闢)
may be happening to Korea in the form of global Korea. This new Korea can be
seen in a symbolic way of the Korean messianic hope. In this respect, the
Korean diaspora can be interpreted in
light of the emergence of a new global Korea. If we take the Korean diaspora seriously in interpreting it as
the emergence of a global Korea
or a “new Korea” with the
sense of “mission” and “prophecy” of the opening of a new heaven and new
earth for Korea, this will
be indeed the beginning of a new Korea. Before we indulge in this fantasy or a dream land, we must
carefully examine the reality of the Korean diaspora.
It may be useful for us to look at the diaspora
phenomena found in other countries to understand better the characteristics of
the Korean diaspora.
My following observations
on various diasporas is not intended to describe the historical or factual accuracy
of each diaspora, but to reflect its
cultural implications.The Jewish diaspora,
probably the earliest diaspora
starting in 586 BCE , after the destruction of the First Temple and the
consequent the Babylonian Exile, has had a significant religious and spiritual
influence. Judaism has laid the foundation for Christianity, and Christianity
has become the foundation for the Western spirituality and culture. The Chinese
silk road has become the symbol of the commercial and
cultural exchange between East and West but also of cross-cultural influence
between the two spheres. The Italians are the descendents of the Greco-Roman
civilization. What about the Koreans? How do we compare the Koreans with these
great peoples who have influenced the world throughout history? What do the
Koreans will be able to offer to the world as they scatter to all of the places
in the world? Korea is now facing a serious challenge
in defining its role in globalizing process.
Cultural Challenge
Diaspora, although its original meaning
was “scattering of people,” now gains a new meaning in terms of cross-cultural
interaction because of transnational migration in the age of globalization. In
this sense, the Koreans have to think about the cultural implication of Korean diaspora. Although the number of the
Korean people in diaspora (7 million)
is relatively small compared to the Chinese (50 million) and the Italian (40
million), the countries the Koreans scattered (176 countries) are wider and
broader. It is about the time for Koreans to think about Korean diaspora not only in terms how many
countries covered but also in terms of its cultural influence on these nations.
From the cultural and religious perspective, the Taekwondo martial art has been
very successful in establishing the Taekwondo centers in almost every corner of
the world. According to an unofficial count of the Korea National
Sport University,
Taekwondo is now reached to about 200 countries. This number is higher than the
Korean government’s official count of the number of the Korean diaspora countries. There may be some
countries where Taekwondo centers are operated by non-Koreans. In any case, it
is clear that Taekwondo now has become most successful in globalizing Korea. Korean
Christianity also has been successful in the area of the world missions.
According to the Korean World Mission Association, there are 22,130 Korean
Christian missionaries working in 169 countries. This is a remarkable number
when we consider the fact that Protestant Christianity was introduced just
about a bit over a century ago and Catholicism about two centuries ago.
The Christian
population in Korea is now about 25% of the total population of Korea,
however, Christianity in Korea is arguably the most powerful,
dynamic, and influential religion in Korea. Though Christianity and Buddhism
are almost the same in terms of number of followers, in terms of social
influence, Christianity is the most powerful religion in Korea.
Christian population in Korea,
compared to Buddhism, occupies more elite class than Buddhism does. Korean
Christianity has been remarkably successful compared to any other country in Asia or the world for that matter. It is beyond the scope
of the paper to discuss the history of Korean Christianity and its growth, but it
would suffice to note that Korean Christianity has experienced one of the most
phenomenal growths in the entire history of Christianity. As mentioned above,
Korean Christianity has been very active in world mission sending so many
missionaries to so many countries. In the history of Christian mission, America has been the number one country in
sending the most missionaries all over the world including Korea. While
the number of American missionaries, especially in the main line Protestant
denominations, is decreasing, Korean Christian missionaries are dramatically
increasing. Most major evangelical churches in Korea
sponsor Korean missionaries to Africa, South Asia, South America, Middle East,
Central Asia, and Russia.
In fact, Korean churches are boasting that they are now taking over the task of
the world missions from American churches. They even feel this mission task as
God’s calling especially in light of the decline of American and European
churches: God called the Korean churches to succeed the world mission in
replacing American churches. A Scottish friend recently sent me a news clipping about a Korean Christian minster being
ordained in Alloa by the Church of Scotland, and becomes a minster in a small
Scottish town. Mr. Sang Cha, a former Hollywood agent, became the first Korean
pastor in ministering at the original home of Presbyterianism. It is highly
symbolic to see a Korean Christian taking on ministry in Scotland, the
land that gave birth to Presbyterianism, and that had deeply influenced Korean
Presbyterianism.
Historically,
during the time of national crisis or new challenges, Koreans had a strong
sense of mission in thinking that they were called not only to make the
imported foreign cultural and religious traditions such as Buddhism and
Confucianism their own but also to maintain and carry on the originality of
these traditions as the best successor. During the time of the unification of
the three Kingdoms and the rise of the Unified Silla (668-935), Korean
Buddhists felt a deep sense of faith in Buddhism believing that their country
must become an exemplary Buddhist nation (pulguk, 佛國) even better
than India and China. During the Chosŏn Dynasty (1392-1910) when
Confucianism was the official ideology, especially after the fall of the Ming
Dynasty of China, Korean Confucians felt that they were the legitimate successors
and defenders of the authentic form of Confucianism. Now some Korean Christians
have a similar idea in thinking that Christianity in the West and America is
waning, and has become too secularized. Korean churches, thus, must maintain
the purity and originality of Christianity and Korea must
take over the task of the world missions. This sense of mission is even
stronger among the Korean Americans in America. About
80% of Koreans are attending churches while about 50% Americans attend Sunday services.
This means that the Koreans are the highest among any racial and ethnic groups
in church attendance in America
or anywhere in the world. Most non-Christian Koreans who come to the United States or Canada
from Korea convert to
Christianity when they arrive in North America.
There are many reasons for the non-Christians from Korea to start attending churches: need for a community, sense of belonging, need
for information, job, social networking, transcendental power to survive and
succeed, etc. At any rate, Korean churches have been very successful in
utilizing these needs of the Korean people and converting them to Christianity.
Most ethnic minority groups in the United States who came to this country brought
their own religious traditions and maintain them as their sources of spiritual
inspiration and cultural enrichment as found in the Jews, Indians, Thais, Vietnamese, and
those from Middle
East. The Koreans, however, when they came to this country, brought
Christianity from Korea
as their own religious tradition. Now Christianity has become a Korean
religious tradition. Most Korean Christians in fact do not feel that Christianity
is a foreign religion. Most immigrant communities from Asia, Middle East, and
Europe brought their religious traditions as part of their own culture when
they came to America.
In this sense, their cultural identity and religious identity are not
different. The Jews, for example, have no separation between their religion and
culture. For the Jews, their history, culture and religion are all inseparably
intertwined. For the Korean Christians, however, their cultural traditions and
religious traditions are entirely different. Their cultural identity and
religious identity are not the same. Yet, most Korean Christians do not feel
any sense of conflict between their cultural identity and religious identity. Korean
Christians feel that the Biblical history and stories are so relevant to
Koreans that they treat the history of Israel and the Bible stories as their
very own stories. Most Korean Christians feel more familiar with Biblical
history and stories than with Korean history. The story of Abraham in the Bible
is more powerfully engrained in the mind of Korean Christians than the story of
Tan’gun. Furthermore, most Korean Christians consider Korean indigenous spirituality
as pagan and idol worshiping that should be eliminated from their mind. Thus,
the Biblical tradition has become not only their spiritual but also their cultural
tradition for most Korean Christians. They think that God has chosen Korea and the
Korean people to be His people and make them to succeed the Christianity for
the future.
As Korea
becomes global and the Korean diaspora
becomes wider and broader, Korean Christianity will become more global. Korean
churches will be everywhere on the planet and sending Korean missionaries to
everywhere. Korea
will soon be the most powerful Christian country in the world. In this process,
what Korea
is globalizing will mostly be Christianity, not Korean culture other than
culinary culture and the Taekwondo martial art. Korean Christianity has shown
very little respect for Korean traditional religions and spiritual traditions
including Buddhism, Confucianism, and shamanism. Often the Korean Christians
have shown their disrespect for and disapproval of these indigenous traditions.
Since Korean Christianity paid no or little attention to the Korean traditional
culture and indigenous spirituality, what they are globalizing is the Christianity
they received from American missionaries and the West.
Challenges
As the Korean diaspora
becomes more global and the globalization of Korea
becomes more extended, Korea
is facing new challenges. The
security of the divided Korean
Peninsula may be the
central concern. The Washington Post reported on July 7, 2011, as the top story
on the front page,
the news of South
Korea being awarded the 2018 Winter Olympics as announced
in Durban, South Africa after the voting of
the Olympic Committee. On the same date, Washington Post also reported the North Korea’s Nuclear power in connection with Pakistan.
And also
published a report about South Korean mandatory military service.
In spite of the South Korean success on the global front in gaining the
prestigious award of hosting the 2018 Winter Olympics in Pyeongchang, we are reminded
of the fact that Korea is
still a divided country with the nuclear threat from North
Korea and South
Korea still has mandatory military service. It
is highly significant that a major US
newspaper, the Washington Post, should publish three reports on a tiny country like
Korea: all witnessing to the
success, but also the perils, and uncertainty facing Korea. Whatever
“success” the South has achieved is fragile and vulnerable in light of the
instability and uncertainty due to the nuclear threat from the North.
Furthermore, the nuclear weapons in North Korea
threaten not only South Korea
but also the neighboring Asian countries and even North
America. The nuclear threat from North Korea makes the future of Korean
success uncertain.
Cultural crisis is
our next concern. The globalization and modernization of Korea have
brought about the Westernization of Korea. In fact, “globalization” has become “Westernization”
or “Americanization.” Korea
has eagerly accepted and embraced the “Westernizing” process more than any
other country in the world. Teaching and learning English is the most important
subject at school and proficiency in English language has become the measure of
one’s “success” in hiring and promotion at work. In short, English has become the
most critical single criterion for one’s intellectual ability and social
mobility. Furthermore, the number of Korean students studying in America is reaching 100,000 almost the same
number as students coming from China
or India.
An even more serious problem is that English has invaded every aspect of Korean
life. Not only has English vocabulary become part of Korean, but English has also
transformed the Korean language and sentence structure. By doing so, English
has changed the Korean way of thinking. Contemporary Korean language, for
example, is more conscious about the distinction of gender and number in
sentences. Traditionally, Korean is an inclusive language less concerned about
the gender and number distinction. The Korean language and way of thinking are
losing their unique Korean patterns and quality under the influence of frequent
and sometimes wrong usage of English. Although English is an essential part of
globalizing Korea,
the “local” linguistic heritage of Korean must be kept as an essential part of the
globalization process.
The globalizing
process must not be understood as a one way traffic, i.e., Westernizing Korea to
make Korea yet another Western country in transforming Korea with English,
Western life style, and Western values. Rather, it is equally important to look
for other ways of making Korea
global. Globalization, thus, has to be the process of mutually interacting and
transforming. In this respect, Korea
is facing a new challenge: how to be successful in making Korean culture,
culinary culture, pop culture, spirituality, language, and traditional values
global. As discussed above, Christianity in Korea has been successful in Christianizing
Korea including Korean Americans in this country but painfully neglectful in
nourishing and shaping Korean cultural identity and heritage. The Korean
churches are boasting the success of their growth but they have not been
successful in providing a rich Korean cultural environment. Korean churches are
filled mostly with the first generation Koreans but much less successful in
attracting 2nd and 3rd generation Koreans. While other
ethnic immigrant communities found their cultural heritage and spiritual inspiration
in their own religious tradition such as Buddhist or Hindu temples, Islamic
mosques, Jewish synagogues, etc, the Korean churches have no interest in
learning and teaching Korean cultural and religious heritage. The Korean
Americans are becoming more and more disinterested in attending Korean
churches. The only reason why Korean American churches are prospering is
because of the first generation Koreans. Even after the initial immigration
wave in 1970s and 80s Koreans keep coming to the United States in making the first generation
of the Koreans as a perpetual one. Since the Korean church congregants are made
of mostly the first generation, Korean churches have had a steady growth. On
the other hand, most 2nd generation Koreans are leaving Korean
churches in spite of the attempt to keep them at the church through the “English
Ministry.” Among those who stay with the Korean churches, will most likely to become
conservative, evangelical, and even Pentecostal Christian because they are
deeply influenced by the conservative and evangelical campus ministries while
they attend colleges. Evangelical Christianity does not allow cultural and
religious pluralism. Pluralism is a dirty word for its adherents. Because of
this conservative and evangelical influence, Korean American Christians and
their churches are overwhelmingly conservative, evangelical, exclusive, monolithic
and, consequently, considerably less tolerant. This evangelical Christianity
has a passionate zeal for Christianizing the world but is strongly against
religious pluralism and cultural diversity. As Korea becomes more and more
global, and the Korean diaspora becomes
wider and broader, Korean evangelical Christianity is becoming narrow and
rigid, dogmatic, exclusive, self-righteous, spiritually arrogant, and opposed to
and dismissive of Korea’s rich spiritual heritage.
Conclusion
As Korea becomes global, we can’t
simply ignore the cultural and spiritual heritage we inherited from our
ancestors. We should not allow ourselfves to become cultural orphans and adopt
the Western culture as our own. This is not to say that the Koreans must go against
Christianity nor advocate that we should go back to Buddhism or Confucianism.
On the contrary, Korean American Christians have a unique opportunity to become
to appreciate their own heritage without leaving their own faith in
Christianity. True globalization can be achieved only when we become truly
local and at the same time truly global.